*TALA REORGANISATION*
It is opportune to examine the contribution of Haridasas in general and of the yatitraya in particular to the evolution in tala which swept over Karnataka music at 15 century. These changes were profound and far reaching. HIndustani music, influenced by Persian music, employed the tabla as the tala expounding instrument through the concept of țhekâ which enunciated the organisation of the âvarta in terms of accentuation. This became a differenti_ ating and enduring feature of Hindustani music. It is characteristic of Karnataka music that it rang in all the ransformations strictly within the limits of tradition and retained historical continuity.
That classical Indian music had the same, uniform, tala system before the 14th cent. may be inferred music and dance treatises of the period. Tala may be defined as a temporal device which performs the following it measures out sangita i.e. singing, instrumentation and dancing in time; it quantitatively determines and fixes these agglutinative arts in terms of duration of their elemental events : thus it is a time matrix for them ; it provides unity of performance through simultaneity i.e. several performers may execute the same event at the same moment ; each event may be exactly located against a continuously fluent temporal background through continuity ; thus tâla resolves the linearity of time into these two dimensions. The measuring unit is a spirally recurrent (âvarta) constant span of time, the quantity of which neither too long nor too short-is determined by aesthetic and technical exigencies : the span is divided into 'organs' (avayava, añga) by constantly placed accents or beats (ghāta or pâta) ; because of its continuity, the tala measures and fixes not only an event, but also silences or pauses in music and dance ; it bestows spatiotemperal unity on the fluent corpus of melody and on the fluent corpus of formal kinematics in dancing, it also provides a temporal foil to the song or dance through a constantly and uniformly recurring rhythmic background against which a predetermined or _ex tempore_ cross-rhythmic theme, inherent in music or dance or independent, may be compared or contrasted ; it confers convergence, direction and stability on the intrinsic and extrinsic rhythmic content of song or dance.
Tâlas were classified as mârga or deśî in ancient Indian music. The former were five viz. caccatpuţa, câcapuța, udghatta, şatpitâputra and sampakveştāka; these were regarded as the archetypes of all other talas - collectively called deśî - which were derived or generated from them. The marga talas were constituted only from three angas viz. laghu, guru and pluta which were inspired from, and corresponded to their prosodial, namesake analogues. The deșî tālas had three more besides these viz. virâma, druta and niḥśabda (=kakapâda or hamsapâda). Of these, druta was defined with a duration of half that of the laghu and laghu of five short syllables, Guru, pluta and nihśabda had double, triple and quadruple durations of the laghu respectively. The desi talas were formed by various permutations and combinations as well as different numbers of these. By dividing each unitary duration of the âvarta (pâdabhāga) into three, four and five parts, techniques of triple (tryaśra), quadruple (caturaśra) and quintuple (khanda) times became possible. The quantity of the tâla span (âvarta) could be expanded or contracted through the prāņas (vital aspects) kala, kâla and mârga. The constituent organs (anga) of the tala were marked by sounded (saśabda) and silent (nihśabda) manual acts (kriyâ). The commencing position of the melody line in the tâla - âvarta was marked by graha. The overall pace of the tala, determined by the quantity or mâtra of each unit (pâdabhâga) of the tâla was defined as laya. The temporal pattern emerging from the inherent distribution of the angas was defined as yati. The scheme of tabulating all possible permutations of angas to yield together the same total time span of a given tâla-âvarta or an anga thereof was known as prastâra. Laghu, which determined the durations of the guru and pluta, was rigidly assigned a duration of five short syllables in mârga talas; the number of deśî tâlas was not fixed ; indeed, they numbered several hundreds in the haridasa-age in Karnataka music and were still proliferating. Laghu still determined the quantity of the âvarta because guru, pluta and nibsabda were defined relative to it, but its quantity was variable ; there were three kinds of laghus with durations of four, five and six syllables respectively in practice in desi talas. The virama was defined with half the duration of the anga preceding it ; therefore its quantity was also relative and often, was of inconvenient fractions.
(to be continued)
(From the book "Music of Madhva Monks" —Dr. R. Sathyanayana.)
Archive of Music Articles - Dr. R. Sathyanarayana
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*TALA REORGANIZATION*
(continues)
This then, is briefly the conceptual and empirical material which the madhva saints inherited from their musical forebears. The endless permutative possibilities and extensive practice had yielded a huge crop of deśî tâlas ; paradoxically these very reasons for their prolificity also tolled the knell of their dissipation. For, excessive proliferation and excessive usage led to excessive permissiveness and consequently to insecurity, slackness, anarchy and disorganisation in tâla. The yatitraya and their haridasa disciples guided our music with vision, wisdom and brilliance in these critical times and conferred on it direction these critical times and conferred on it direction and destination in practice, musicologists of Karnataka and from Karnataka stabilised and authenticated it in theory. Their main contributions may be briefly listed here.
1. They replaced hundreds of deśî tâlas obtaining wide usage with only nine or ten tâlas. In this, their genius lies in the fact that the latter were not of their own creation, but were derived from an earlier parallel tradition ; they constructed necessary theoretical parameters, refined them with adequate methodology and established them with revised names and revised forms. They used three sources for this purpose : i. The revised forms or names were not unknown to practice or theory; even as long ago as in the 12th cent. Haripaladeva (Haripaladeva is op. cit. 5.184 - 200)mentions them. That these were well known in Karnataka is proved from references to them by the Kannada poets Aggala (Aggala, Candraprabha - ಪುರಾಣ 15.52.72), Palkurikli Somanatha (Somanatha Palkurki, Panditaradhya Caritamu, Parvata-Prakaranamu, pp. 446, 447, 449) Candrasekhara, (Candrasekhara, Pampâstâna - varnanam, 74, p 27) Bahubali (Bahubali, Nâgakumaracharitam, 22.98) etc... ii. Folk music and metrical structures had already contained time measures such as ragańa mațhya, kuru ( = turupu = are) jhampe, tivuďe etc. The haridasas refined them theoretically and brought them into the fold of art music. iii. These tâlas were already prescribed for sâlagasuďa prabandhas from early times. The haridasas transformed these tâlas into a sulâdi tâlas and the prabandhas into sulâdis. For this purpose they adopted the tâlas which were then already in wide usage viz. pratimațhya, baddhâpańa = adda = tripuța, yatilagna, jhampa, dvitîya = turanga, kudukka = prati = varńayati and eka = âdi and adapted them with minor changes ; these were established in different names and slightly different forms. It should be noted that in order to achieve this, sometimes both name and form had to be exchanged.
2.. Further changes were introduced in the concept of deśí, and in the anga, technique and method of tâla. Many tâlas such as vijaya, darpańa, caccarí were called deśí but were never associated with folk music ; they were deśî only to the extent that they were different from caccatputa etc. just as all musical material which we now regard as classical was defined as deśî by Matanga. But the tâla complex erected by the haridasa's was truly deśí in origin; the haridasas not only endowed them with a 'classical' status but stabilised them to the exclusion of all other tâlas which had come down in use over hundreds of years in art music. This was indeed a significant contribution.
Musicians and musicologists of the haridasa-age athetised guru, pluta and nihśabda from contemporary tâla practice and retained only druta and laghu. Guru and pluta commenced on a single sounded beat and their relatively longer durations had to be executed without the prop of intermediate kriya-s; kakapāda indeed, had to sustain the duration of four laghus through only nihśabda kriyās. These were neither useful to, nor compatible with ordinary contemparary melodic usage. The guru however, was at once completely cut off but was retained at first for sometime in nâțya dańďî dhruvatâla. Since they adopted, adapted or retained only such tâlas in which no anga was longer in duration than the laghu, they lent themselves readily to universal, popular use.
3. . It is at this time that the laghu was revised and reorganised. Its variable value of the durations of four five or six short syllables in deśí tâla practice was fixed at the constant value of four syllables uniformly in all talas. This provided a natural rhythmic base of quadruple movement so that the entire corpus of melody gained uniformity, convergence and balances This standard value has remained in usage even today.
(From the book "Madhva Monks of Karnataka" - by Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana. Pp. 53-55)
(continues)
This then, is briefly the conceptual and empirical material which the madhva saints inherited from their musical forebears. The endless permutative possibilities and extensive practice had yielded a huge crop of deśî tâlas ; paradoxically these very reasons for their prolificity also tolled the knell of their dissipation. For, excessive proliferation and excessive usage led to excessive permissiveness and consequently to insecurity, slackness, anarchy and disorganisation in tâla. The yatitraya and their haridasa disciples guided our music with vision, wisdom and brilliance in these critical times and conferred on it direction these critical times and conferred on it direction and destination in practice, musicologists of Karnataka and from Karnataka stabilised and authenticated it in theory. Their main contributions may be briefly listed here.
1. They replaced hundreds of deśî tâlas obtaining wide usage with only nine or ten tâlas. In this, their genius lies in the fact that the latter were not of their own creation, but were derived from an earlier parallel tradition ; they constructed necessary theoretical parameters, refined them with adequate methodology and established them with revised names and revised forms. They used three sources for this purpose : i. The revised forms or names were not unknown to practice or theory; even as long ago as in the 12th cent. Haripaladeva (Haripaladeva is op. cit. 5.184 - 200)mentions them. That these were well known in Karnataka is proved from references to them by the Kannada poets Aggala (Aggala, Candraprabha - ಪುರಾಣ 15.52.72), Palkurikli Somanatha (Somanatha Palkurki, Panditaradhya Caritamu, Parvata-Prakaranamu, pp. 446, 447, 449) Candrasekhara, (Candrasekhara, Pampâstâna - varnanam, 74, p 27) Bahubali (Bahubali, Nâgakumaracharitam, 22.98) etc... ii. Folk music and metrical structures had already contained time measures such as ragańa mațhya, kuru ( = turupu = are) jhampe, tivuďe etc. The haridasas refined them theoretically and brought them into the fold of art music. iii. These tâlas were already prescribed for sâlagasuďa prabandhas from early times. The haridasas transformed these tâlas into a sulâdi tâlas and the prabandhas into sulâdis. For this purpose they adopted the tâlas which were then already in wide usage viz. pratimațhya, baddhâpańa = adda = tripuța, yatilagna, jhampa, dvitîya = turanga, kudukka = prati = varńayati and eka = âdi and adapted them with minor changes ; these were established in different names and slightly different forms. It should be noted that in order to achieve this, sometimes both name and form had to be exchanged.
2.. Further changes were introduced in the concept of deśí, and in the anga, technique and method of tâla. Many tâlas such as vijaya, darpańa, caccarí were called deśí but were never associated with folk music ; they were deśî only to the extent that they were different from caccatputa etc. just as all musical material which we now regard as classical was defined as deśî by Matanga. But the tâla complex erected by the haridasa's was truly deśí in origin; the haridasas not only endowed them with a 'classical' status but stabilised them to the exclusion of all other tâlas which had come down in use over hundreds of years in art music. This was indeed a significant contribution.
Musicians and musicologists of the haridasa-age athetised guru, pluta and nihśabda from contemporary tâla practice and retained only druta and laghu. Guru and pluta commenced on a single sounded beat and their relatively longer durations had to be executed without the prop of intermediate kriya-s; kakapāda indeed, had to sustain the duration of four laghus through only nihśabda kriyās. These were neither useful to, nor compatible with ordinary contemparary melodic usage. The guru however, was at once completely cut off but was retained at first for sometime in nâțya dańďî dhruvatâla. Since they adopted, adapted or retained only such tâlas in which no anga was longer in duration than the laghu, they lent themselves readily to universal, popular use.
3. . It is at this time that the laghu was revised and reorganised. Its variable value of the durations of four five or six short syllables in deśí tâla practice was fixed at the constant value of four syllables uniformly in all talas. This provided a natural rhythmic base of quadruple movement so that the entire corpus of melody gained uniformity, convergence and balances This standard value has remained in usage even today.
(From the book "Madhva Monks of Karnataka" - by Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana. Pp. 53-55)
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Re: Archive of Music Articles - Dr. R. Sathyanarayana
*AESTHETIC MATERIALS OF INDIAN MUSIC*
*1. Alankāra*
Whatever may be the definition of beauty, it manifests mainly in ways viz. naturally and by augmentation, ornamentation or embellishment. The latter is called _alankāra_. _Alankāra_ is an aesthetic device which attracts enhanced attention by adding beauty or grace to a figure or as a figure or as a figure in art. In a corporeal sense it functions in two ways: (a) by increasing the potentiality for beauty by setting of a body part to better, or more attractive appearance, or (b) by concealing plainness, inadequacy or blemish. It contributes to aesthesis by understatement, emphasis or overstatement. Its functioning is balanced or regulated by another aesthetic principle, namely, appropriateness (aucitya).
Evolution of life in all its prolificity has brought forth differentiation, specialisation and sensitisation of the senses of perception. Most important among these are visual and aural which distinguish man from other life forms. An illustration of this is _alankāra_ which manifests in _rupa_ and _sabda_ only in perception, expression and appreciation. As a beautifying device, _alankāra_ is utilitarian in function in ceramic and plastic designs in graphics and colour in crafted articles, while it is non-utilitarian in music and the fine arts. It is revealed to _rūpa_ (visual form) in painting, sculpture and architecture, and to _sabda_ in music and poetry. It relates it to both in dance and drama which are at once visual poetry ( _dṛśyakavya_ ) and aural poetry ( _śravyakāvya_ ). Visual ornamentation of _rūpa_ may be purely incidental or secondary in objects such as wig, robe, sceptre, crown, yajñopavīta, weapons which are symbols of insignia of distinction, power or authority.
Because _alankāra_ is a product of the human mind, embodying beauty, it is an anthropomorphic concept. Colour patterns, designs, birdsongs, sports etc. in animals and birds and their analogues in plants are evolutional devices for attracting and sustaining attention in a mate for reproduction and perpetuation and do not have an aesthetic purpose or function. These possess meaning as _alankāra_ only by human attribution and extrapolation. Anthropomorphic images of divine, mythical and semimythical beings (e.g. gandharva, apsarās, kinnara, kimpuruṣa, nāga) carry _alankāras_ for various parts of the body consistent with such a notion. They are extended to their vehicles (animals or birds) as well as to their weapons. All such ornamental or decorative elements are _alankāra_ per se and seldom carry a symbolic value. When they do (e.g. sankha, cakra, padma, garuḍa) they revert to the anthropomorphic image. All such secondary _alankāras_ are intended to converge or redound to the principal, image ; such in any case, is the purpose of the _alankāra_, primary or secondary.
In Indian music _alankara_ operates in three layers: _svara_ (individual tone), _svarasamuccaya_ ( _varṇālankāra,_ patterned svara phrase) and patterned rāga segments ( _sthaya_ or _thāya_), melodic figure. Its function is thus progressive and systematic. Its ultimate aim is to generate _rakti_ (aesthetic delight), which is the sine qua non for all forms of art. This is accomplished by methods, techniques and devices which are peculiar to itself. The word _alankāra_ has two meanings viz. sustenance/adequacy and ornament/decoration/ embelishment. Both meanings are realised by _alankāra_ in each of the above three layers.
(From the book - "Karnataka Music as Aesthetic Form" - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana)
*1. Alankāra*
Whatever may be the definition of beauty, it manifests mainly in ways viz. naturally and by augmentation, ornamentation or embellishment. The latter is called _alankāra_. _Alankāra_ is an aesthetic device which attracts enhanced attention by adding beauty or grace to a figure or as a figure or as a figure in art. In a corporeal sense it functions in two ways: (a) by increasing the potentiality for beauty by setting of a body part to better, or more attractive appearance, or (b) by concealing plainness, inadequacy or blemish. It contributes to aesthesis by understatement, emphasis or overstatement. Its functioning is balanced or regulated by another aesthetic principle, namely, appropriateness (aucitya).
Evolution of life in all its prolificity has brought forth differentiation, specialisation and sensitisation of the senses of perception. Most important among these are visual and aural which distinguish man from other life forms. An illustration of this is _alankāra_ which manifests in _rupa_ and _sabda_ only in perception, expression and appreciation. As a beautifying device, _alankāra_ is utilitarian in function in ceramic and plastic designs in graphics and colour in crafted articles, while it is non-utilitarian in music and the fine arts. It is revealed to _rūpa_ (visual form) in painting, sculpture and architecture, and to _sabda_ in music and poetry. It relates it to both in dance and drama which are at once visual poetry ( _dṛśyakavya_ ) and aural poetry ( _śravyakāvya_ ). Visual ornamentation of _rūpa_ may be purely incidental or secondary in objects such as wig, robe, sceptre, crown, yajñopavīta, weapons which are symbols of insignia of distinction, power or authority.
Because _alankāra_ is a product of the human mind, embodying beauty, it is an anthropomorphic concept. Colour patterns, designs, birdsongs, sports etc. in animals and birds and their analogues in plants are evolutional devices for attracting and sustaining attention in a mate for reproduction and perpetuation and do not have an aesthetic purpose or function. These possess meaning as _alankāra_ only by human attribution and extrapolation. Anthropomorphic images of divine, mythical and semimythical beings (e.g. gandharva, apsarās, kinnara, kimpuruṣa, nāga) carry _alankāras_ for various parts of the body consistent with such a notion. They are extended to their vehicles (animals or birds) as well as to their weapons. All such ornamental or decorative elements are _alankāra_ per se and seldom carry a symbolic value. When they do (e.g. sankha, cakra, padma, garuḍa) they revert to the anthropomorphic image. All such secondary _alankāras_ are intended to converge or redound to the principal, image ; such in any case, is the purpose of the _alankāra_, primary or secondary.
In Indian music _alankara_ operates in three layers: _svara_ (individual tone), _svarasamuccaya_ ( _varṇālankāra,_ patterned svara phrase) and patterned rāga segments ( _sthaya_ or _thāya_), melodic figure. Its function is thus progressive and systematic. Its ultimate aim is to generate _rakti_ (aesthetic delight), which is the sine qua non for all forms of art. This is accomplished by methods, techniques and devices which are peculiar to itself. The word _alankāra_ has two meanings viz. sustenance/adequacy and ornament/decoration/ embelishment. Both meanings are realised by _alankāra_ in each of the above three layers.
(From the book - "Karnataka Music as Aesthetic Form" - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana)
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Re: Archive of Music Articles - Dr. R. Sathyanarayana
*Aesthetic Materials of Indian Music*
*Svara*
Svara is the stuff of which all melody is made and is defined in Indian music by Sarngadeva in _Sangītaratnākara_ as that which generates aesthetic delight (! _rañjana_ ) by itself i.e. independently of any and all extraneous factors. It is thus an autonomously fundamental musical entity. The term is etymologically derived in two ways: 'sva + rājṛ' (rājr = dīpti i.e. intensity of aesthesis; or shining) i.e. self-luminous according to Matangamuni (in _Brhaddesi_ ); 'sur' = (musical) sound, warming (of the heart with aesthetic delight; 'sur' _sabdopatāpayoḥ_ ) according to Abhinavagupta ( _Abhinavabhārati_ ). Both definitions make _svara_ the source of _rakti_ and therefore of beauty or _rasa_ in music. However, _svara_ is seldom performed in a static, constant pitch in Indian music, be it southern or northern. It is almost always rendered in a dynamic, curved or oscillatory state in such a way as to be pleasing to the listener's mind. The process causing this is called _gamaka,_ which is defined as the shaking of a note which affords pleasure to the listener's mind. This may occur in an almost infinite number of ways in nature and nuance, depending on socio-cultural conditioning and on specific musical exigencies. _Sangitaśāstra_ admits the impossibility of defining and classifying them all and arranges them into fifteen broad categories, each hosting a very large number of subvarieties some of which are practised in vocal and instrumental music. It is important to note that _gamaka_ is not an adventitious, extraneous process applied to _svara_ but is integral to it and is its essential attribute. As a consequence, _svara_ assumes different shades, shapes or personalities which are contextual. Thus, _gamaka_ is _alankāra_ of _svara_ in both meanings. It is the very warp and woof of the fabric of Indian music. Its frequent translation as embellishment should be taken in this sense. _Kāku_ is a peculiar tone or change of voice which expresses an emotional or other stress. _Gamaka_ is to _svara_ what _kāku_ is to speech and _dhvani_ is to poetry. _Kāku_ is also recognised in music in the form of _svarakāku,_ _rāgakāku,_ _deśakāku_ etc.
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form" - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana)
*Svara*
Svara is the stuff of which all melody is made and is defined in Indian music by Sarngadeva in _Sangītaratnākara_ as that which generates aesthetic delight (! _rañjana_ ) by itself i.e. independently of any and all extraneous factors. It is thus an autonomously fundamental musical entity. The term is etymologically derived in two ways: 'sva + rājṛ' (rājr = dīpti i.e. intensity of aesthesis; or shining) i.e. self-luminous according to Matangamuni (in _Brhaddesi_ ); 'sur' = (musical) sound, warming (of the heart with aesthetic delight; 'sur' _sabdopatāpayoḥ_ ) according to Abhinavagupta ( _Abhinavabhārati_ ). Both definitions make _svara_ the source of _rakti_ and therefore of beauty or _rasa_ in music. However, _svara_ is seldom performed in a static, constant pitch in Indian music, be it southern or northern. It is almost always rendered in a dynamic, curved or oscillatory state in such a way as to be pleasing to the listener's mind. The process causing this is called _gamaka,_ which is defined as the shaking of a note which affords pleasure to the listener's mind. This may occur in an almost infinite number of ways in nature and nuance, depending on socio-cultural conditioning and on specific musical exigencies. _Sangitaśāstra_ admits the impossibility of defining and classifying them all and arranges them into fifteen broad categories, each hosting a very large number of subvarieties some of which are practised in vocal and instrumental music. It is important to note that _gamaka_ is not an adventitious, extraneous process applied to _svara_ but is integral to it and is its essential attribute. As a consequence, _svara_ assumes different shades, shapes or personalities which are contextual. Thus, _gamaka_ is _alankāra_ of _svara_ in both meanings. It is the very warp and woof of the fabric of Indian music. Its frequent translation as embellishment should be taken in this sense. _Kāku_ is a peculiar tone or change of voice which expresses an emotional or other stress. _Gamaka_ is to _svara_ what _kāku_ is to speech and _dhvani_ is to poetry. _Kāku_ is also recognised in music in the form of _svarakāku,_ _rāgakāku,_ _deśakāku_ etc.
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form" - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana)
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Re: Archive of Music Articles - Dr. R. Sathyanarayana
*Aesthetic Materials of Indian Music*
*Varnālankāra*
_Alankāra_ operates as figuration in music in the form of _varṇālankāra._ The adjectival term _varṇa_ is derived from the verbal stem 'varn' (class 10) and is polysemantic. It means, among others, cover, figure, shape, colours, lustre, class and extension.
_Varnālankāra_ is known to Indian music for at least two thousand years. Bharatamuni (Nāṭyaśāstra) explains _varna_ as derived from (only) _svara_ (part in a song) and as dragging out the word text in a play. In other words, it means melodisation of word text. In this sense it corresponds to the term _dhātu_ (musical content) as opposed to _mātu_ (word content). _Gita_ (song) is a combination of the two. Originally, the term was restricted (by Bharatamuni) to song in a play ( _dhurvā_) with the advice that the _varna_ (musical kinesis) should not be too elaborate in such songs (because it distracts the spectator's mind from the word content). In the context of music, the word came to mean expansion or elaboration of a melodic motif or motifs. All melodic flow is organised in terms of, and is articulated with melodic phrases and passages.
In the context of songs composed with words, _varṇa_ may be understood as a process of beautifying ( _alankāra_) _mātu_ (word) with _dhātu_ (melody) in music or drama. This excludes unpatterned, or loosely patterned, free flow of melody as in _ragālāpa._ In songs the durations of tones are closely-knit and the resulting rhythmic patterns are regulated, accommodated in and unified by _tāla_ cycle and _laya_ (tempo), which operate in only in the lesser-known forms of _ālāpa._ It is true that the nature of the _svaras_ and their _gamakas_ suggest certain ranges of pace, but these are not _laya_ in the sense of one of the vital elements of _tāla._ On the other hand, a musical form of Karnataka music known as _tānam_ (or madhyama kalā) progresses in terms of patterned _svara_ phrases set in one or more _layas_ but not regulated by _tāla._
Indian musical theory classifies _varna_ into four broad categories based on the character of the melody and direction of its movement. These are static ( _sthāyī_), ascending ( _ārohī_), descending ( _avarohi_) and irregular, mixed ( _sañcāri_). Any particular instance of _varna_ is defined as _alankāra._ It signifies a melodic situation in which the _svara_ phrase is distinctly patterned. Such pattern is matched or contrasted with the syllabic or prosodial pattern of the word text, thus embellishing the latter, augmenting its meaning and mood. _Alankāra_ is, in this sense the very essence, since most of Indian music is composed with words. After describing sixty three _Varnālankāra,_ Sārngadeva concedes in his _Sangitaratnākara_ that they are indeed endless and can never be comprehended in the shastra. He extols the _varṇālankāra_ for its three benefits viz. generation of aesthetic delight, precise understanding of the pitch value of the _svara_ as well as distinctiveness and beauty of _varna_ in song. Bharatamuni eulogises _varṇālankāra_ with a telling simile : a song without _alankāra_ is like the night without the moon, creeper without flowers, river without water, woman without ornaments.
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form" - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr R. Sathyanarayana)
*Varnālankāra*
_Alankāra_ operates as figuration in music in the form of _varṇālankāra._ The adjectival term _varṇa_ is derived from the verbal stem 'varn' (class 10) and is polysemantic. It means, among others, cover, figure, shape, colours, lustre, class and extension.
_Varnālankāra_ is known to Indian music for at least two thousand years. Bharatamuni (Nāṭyaśāstra) explains _varna_ as derived from (only) _svara_ (part in a song) and as dragging out the word text in a play. In other words, it means melodisation of word text. In this sense it corresponds to the term _dhātu_ (musical content) as opposed to _mātu_ (word content). _Gita_ (song) is a combination of the two. Originally, the term was restricted (by Bharatamuni) to song in a play ( _dhurvā_) with the advice that the _varna_ (musical kinesis) should not be too elaborate in such songs (because it distracts the spectator's mind from the word content). In the context of music, the word came to mean expansion or elaboration of a melodic motif or motifs. All melodic flow is organised in terms of, and is articulated with melodic phrases and passages.
In the context of songs composed with words, _varṇa_ may be understood as a process of beautifying ( _alankāra_) _mātu_ (word) with _dhātu_ (melody) in music or drama. This excludes unpatterned, or loosely patterned, free flow of melody as in _ragālāpa._ In songs the durations of tones are closely-knit and the resulting rhythmic patterns are regulated, accommodated in and unified by _tāla_ cycle and _laya_ (tempo), which operate in only in the lesser-known forms of _ālāpa._ It is true that the nature of the _svaras_ and their _gamakas_ suggest certain ranges of pace, but these are not _laya_ in the sense of one of the vital elements of _tāla._ On the other hand, a musical form of Karnataka music known as _tānam_ (or madhyama kalā) progresses in terms of patterned _svara_ phrases set in one or more _layas_ but not regulated by _tāla._
Indian musical theory classifies _varna_ into four broad categories based on the character of the melody and direction of its movement. These are static ( _sthāyī_), ascending ( _ārohī_), descending ( _avarohi_) and irregular, mixed ( _sañcāri_). Any particular instance of _varna_ is defined as _alankāra._ It signifies a melodic situation in which the _svara_ phrase is distinctly patterned. Such pattern is matched or contrasted with the syllabic or prosodial pattern of the word text, thus embellishing the latter, augmenting its meaning and mood. _Alankāra_ is, in this sense the very essence, since most of Indian music is composed with words. After describing sixty three _Varnālankāra,_ Sārngadeva concedes in his _Sangitaratnākara_ that they are indeed endless and can never be comprehended in the shastra. He extols the _varṇālankāra_ for its three benefits viz. generation of aesthetic delight, precise understanding of the pitch value of the _svara_ as well as distinctiveness and beauty of _varna_ in song. Bharatamuni eulogises _varṇālankāra_ with a telling simile : a song without _alankāra_ is like the night without the moon, creeper without flowers, river without water, woman without ornaments.
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form" - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr R. Sathyanarayana)
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ajaysimha
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Re: Archive of Music Articles - Dr. R. Sathyanarayana
*Aesthetic Materials of Indian Music*
*Rāga*
Indian music is distinguished from every other musical system in the world because of its three contributions viz. _rāga,_ _tāla_ and _prabandha._ Its aesthetic experience is therefore a unique complex of these.
_Rāga_ is a structured continuum of musical tone composed of five, six or seven _svaras._ It may also be regarded as the locus of a musical tone with varying pitch moving in time. The most ancient definition of _rāga_ is by Matanga (seventh century A.D.) which is still valid:
_yo'sau dhvani-viseșas tu svara-varna-vibhūṣitaḥ|_ _rañjako janacittānāṁ sa rāgaḥ kathito budhaiḥ ||_
_Rāga_ is a special series of (musical) sounds which is ornamented with _svaras_ and _varnas_ and is appealing to the minds of people. The keyword in this definition is 'appealing' ( _rañjana_). It is derived from the root _'rañj'_ which means to be dyed, coloured, affected, moved, excited, glad, charmed, delighted, attracted, enamoured, to rejoice, exult and shine bright. The grammatical process of such derivation bestows on _rāga_ the meanings of the act of colouring, colour, hue, any feeling or passion, interest or joy, delight and beauty, all of which are relevant to the experience of beauty or _rasa_ in music. As in poetry, expressiveness, rather than expression, in _rāga_ is called _dhvani._ It suggests meanings which are autonomous or peculiar to music only and transcend those that accrue from mere sequential or ordered sound patterns. Thus, because of _dhvani,_ _rāga_ begins where melodic structure and melodic kinesis end. The specific aesthetic experience which characterises the individual personality of a _rāga_ is generated by _dhvani_ and is _sui generis._ _Dhvani_ is the exclusive poetic function of non-literal sound sequence or pattern such as _rāga._ It is the total experience of _rāga,_ not its ingredient or part. The whole is greater than the sum of the parts. There is a second definition of _rāga_ by Matanga :
_Svara-varna-viśiștena dhvanibhedena vā punaḥ|_
_Rajyate yena sac-cittaṁ sa rāgaḥ sammataḥ satām||_
This suggests an interaction between musician and listener: _rāga_ is that which colours the mind of the _sahrdaya_ (connoisseur) in two ways : special ( _viśeșa_) melodic ( _svara_) movement ( _varna_) and different _dhvani._ In this passage 'vā' has a conjunctional or cumulative sense rather than the optional. The first of these ways implies that a particular aesthetic experience is uniquely defined for a given _rāga_ by melodic movements which are special to it and not by any or every sequence of musical notes. Such specificity of melodic kinesis is physically analysable into and is defined by ten elements like _graha, amśa, nyāsa_ etc. The second way of generating _rāgatva_ (quality of being _räga_) is by _dhvanibheda_ a term which is synonymous with _dhvaniviśeșa_; this term is central to the first definition. The term 'vā' should be construed with additive rather than optional force here also, because _dhvanibheda_ and _viśeșa-svara-varna_ are mutually inclusive than exclusive. The former provides the general criterion of _rāgatva_ while the latter confers the individuating or differentiating criterion. _Dhvanibheda_ may also be interpreted as special inflexion ( _kāku_) of the medium of expression. This again parallels the poetic method.
(to be continued)
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana )
*Rāga*
Indian music is distinguished from every other musical system in the world because of its three contributions viz. _rāga,_ _tāla_ and _prabandha._ Its aesthetic experience is therefore a unique complex of these.
_Rāga_ is a structured continuum of musical tone composed of five, six or seven _svaras._ It may also be regarded as the locus of a musical tone with varying pitch moving in time. The most ancient definition of _rāga_ is by Matanga (seventh century A.D.) which is still valid:
_yo'sau dhvani-viseșas tu svara-varna-vibhūṣitaḥ|_ _rañjako janacittānāṁ sa rāgaḥ kathito budhaiḥ ||_
_Rāga_ is a special series of (musical) sounds which is ornamented with _svaras_ and _varnas_ and is appealing to the minds of people. The keyword in this definition is 'appealing' ( _rañjana_). It is derived from the root _'rañj'_ which means to be dyed, coloured, affected, moved, excited, glad, charmed, delighted, attracted, enamoured, to rejoice, exult and shine bright. The grammatical process of such derivation bestows on _rāga_ the meanings of the act of colouring, colour, hue, any feeling or passion, interest or joy, delight and beauty, all of which are relevant to the experience of beauty or _rasa_ in music. As in poetry, expressiveness, rather than expression, in _rāga_ is called _dhvani._ It suggests meanings which are autonomous or peculiar to music only and transcend those that accrue from mere sequential or ordered sound patterns. Thus, because of _dhvani,_ _rāga_ begins where melodic structure and melodic kinesis end. The specific aesthetic experience which characterises the individual personality of a _rāga_ is generated by _dhvani_ and is _sui generis._ _Dhvani_ is the exclusive poetic function of non-literal sound sequence or pattern such as _rāga._ It is the total experience of _rāga,_ not its ingredient or part. The whole is greater than the sum of the parts. There is a second definition of _rāga_ by Matanga :
_Svara-varna-viśiștena dhvanibhedena vā punaḥ|_
_Rajyate yena sac-cittaṁ sa rāgaḥ sammataḥ satām||_
This suggests an interaction between musician and listener: _rāga_ is that which colours the mind of the _sahrdaya_ (connoisseur) in two ways : special ( _viśeșa_) melodic ( _svara_) movement ( _varna_) and different _dhvani._ In this passage 'vā' has a conjunctional or cumulative sense rather than the optional. The first of these ways implies that a particular aesthetic experience is uniquely defined for a given _rāga_ by melodic movements which are special to it and not by any or every sequence of musical notes. Such specificity of melodic kinesis is physically analysable into and is defined by ten elements like _graha, amśa, nyāsa_ etc. The second way of generating _rāgatva_ (quality of being _räga_) is by _dhvanibheda_ a term which is synonymous with _dhvaniviśeșa_; this term is central to the first definition. The term 'vā' should be construed with additive rather than optional force here also, because _dhvanibheda_ and _viśeșa-svara-varna_ are mutually inclusive than exclusive. The former provides the general criterion of _rāgatva_ while the latter confers the individuating or differentiating criterion. _Dhvanibheda_ may also be interpreted as special inflexion ( _kāku_) of the medium of expression. This again parallels the poetic method.
(to be continued)
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana )
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ajaysimha
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Re: Archive of Music Articles - Dr. R. Sathyanarayana
*Aesthetic Materials of Indian Music*
*Rāga*
(continues)
The expression _'svara-varna-visesena_' may appear at first sight to include a redundancy. _Varna,_ the act of singing musical phrases necessarily includes _svara._ But _svara_ here indicates primary aesthetic delight which it affords in its own autonomy : _'svato rañjayati iti svaraḥ'._ This quality of experience includes those attributes of _svara_ which contribute to its _svaratva_ viz. _snigdhatā, anuraṇana, śrutyantarbhāvitā, dūraśravyatā_ and _gamaka_ constitute its psychoacoustic aspect. Next, _varna_ signifies melodic kinesis i.e. the continuous locus of moving (musical) sound. It is this single, continuous sound which assumes the character, role and function of the expressional/structural vital elements such as _graha, amsa, nyasa_ and which elucidate both the generality and specificity of _rāga._ But _svara_ and _varṇa_ have the power to beautify _alankāra._ When _svara_ is ornamented in a manner appropriate to the _rāga_ (by _gamaka_) and manifests a particular movement pattern, it becomes _varṇālankāra_ : 23 _varṇa_ is general and _alankāra_ is particular.
_Dhvani_ connotes both suggestive expression and suggestive sense. Bhartṛhari ( _Vākyapadiya_) postulates two kinds of _dhvani_ viz. _prākṛta_ (primary) and _vikrta_ (secondary, individuated). The first generates the word-sound gestalt and the second, its individualised expression through subjective parameters such as relative speeds and intensities of utterance of constituent symbols (syllables). A single word, though fixed in its sound content, is individualized when uttered by different persons at different speeds (which determine the comprehension of meaning). Some words besides arousing conventional, contextual and secondary meaning, have also the additional ability or function of manifesting suggested meaning through variable speed in enunciation. So this is also called _dhvani._ Similarly _svara,_ when performed with _gamaka_ and varying durations and speeds by different musicians at different times, has the ability to evoke both primary and secondary meanings in music. These notions may be extrapolated from the spoken, articulate sound (syllable) to musical articulate sound ( _svara_). Expression of meaning of non-literal articulate sound through _dhvani_ may be regarded as _rāga._ The use of such sounds in varying durations such as _druta_ (fast) and _vilamba_ (slow) is of basic importance in _rāga,_ because other things being equal, it is this structural variability which makes possible a great multiplicity of possible expressions or expressiveness, each of them conferring specificity or individuality on meaning. The concept of _sphota_ (emergence of meaning not in successive stages but in a burst at the end of the final symbol of expression) may be readily extended to _rāga_ because, though temporal sequentiality or the semantic symbols (phonems in words, words in phrases, phrases in sentences... in language; _śrutis_ in _svara, svaras_ in _varṇālankāra, varṇālankāra_ in _sthāya, sthāya_ in _ākṣiptikā_ etc. limbs in _rāga_) is inevitable in all discursive semantic modes, meaning of the whole is perceived in a burst ( _sphota_) only at the end of the final symbol; such meaning results from the progressive accumulation of semantic impress ( _samskāra_) of individual units or elements or elements of expression. In other words, _dhvani_ conveys the whole sense of the _rāga_ in a burst and not in stages or phases; these latter are only a methodological necessity and are only technical parameters. I have discussed the extension of _sphota_ to music elsewhere ( _Śruti, Dhvani and Sphota_; Meaning in Music). _Dhvani_ may also be classified into the embellishable ( _vastu_), embellishment ( _alankāra_), transient emotion ( _bhava_) and aesthetic configuration.
(to be continued)
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form" - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana)
*Rāga*
(continues)
The expression _'svara-varna-visesena_' may appear at first sight to include a redundancy. _Varna,_ the act of singing musical phrases necessarily includes _svara._ But _svara_ here indicates primary aesthetic delight which it affords in its own autonomy : _'svato rañjayati iti svaraḥ'._ This quality of experience includes those attributes of _svara_ which contribute to its _svaratva_ viz. _snigdhatā, anuraṇana, śrutyantarbhāvitā, dūraśravyatā_ and _gamaka_ constitute its psychoacoustic aspect. Next, _varna_ signifies melodic kinesis i.e. the continuous locus of moving (musical) sound. It is this single, continuous sound which assumes the character, role and function of the expressional/structural vital elements such as _graha, amsa, nyasa_ and which elucidate both the generality and specificity of _rāga._ But _svara_ and _varṇa_ have the power to beautify _alankāra._ When _svara_ is ornamented in a manner appropriate to the _rāga_ (by _gamaka_) and manifests a particular movement pattern, it becomes _varṇālankāra_ : 23 _varṇa_ is general and _alankāra_ is particular.
_Dhvani_ connotes both suggestive expression and suggestive sense. Bhartṛhari ( _Vākyapadiya_) postulates two kinds of _dhvani_ viz. _prākṛta_ (primary) and _vikrta_ (secondary, individuated). The first generates the word-sound gestalt and the second, its individualised expression through subjective parameters such as relative speeds and intensities of utterance of constituent symbols (syllables). A single word, though fixed in its sound content, is individualized when uttered by different persons at different speeds (which determine the comprehension of meaning). Some words besides arousing conventional, contextual and secondary meaning, have also the additional ability or function of manifesting suggested meaning through variable speed in enunciation. So this is also called _dhvani._ Similarly _svara,_ when performed with _gamaka_ and varying durations and speeds by different musicians at different times, has the ability to evoke both primary and secondary meanings in music. These notions may be extrapolated from the spoken, articulate sound (syllable) to musical articulate sound ( _svara_). Expression of meaning of non-literal articulate sound through _dhvani_ may be regarded as _rāga._ The use of such sounds in varying durations such as _druta_ (fast) and _vilamba_ (slow) is of basic importance in _rāga,_ because other things being equal, it is this structural variability which makes possible a great multiplicity of possible expressions or expressiveness, each of them conferring specificity or individuality on meaning. The concept of _sphota_ (emergence of meaning not in successive stages but in a burst at the end of the final symbol of expression) may be readily extended to _rāga_ because, though temporal sequentiality or the semantic symbols (phonems in words, words in phrases, phrases in sentences... in language; _śrutis_ in _svara, svaras_ in _varṇālankāra, varṇālankāra_ in _sthāya, sthāya_ in _ākṣiptikā_ etc. limbs in _rāga_) is inevitable in all discursive semantic modes, meaning of the whole is perceived in a burst ( _sphota_) only at the end of the final symbol; such meaning results from the progressive accumulation of semantic impress ( _samskāra_) of individual units or elements or elements of expression. In other words, _dhvani_ conveys the whole sense of the _rāga_ in a burst and not in stages or phases; these latter are only a methodological necessity and are only technical parameters. I have discussed the extension of _sphota_ to music elsewhere ( _Śruti, Dhvani and Sphota_; Meaning in Music). _Dhvani_ may also be classified into the embellishable ( _vastu_), embellishment ( _alankāra_), transient emotion ( _bhava_) and aesthetic configuration.
(to be continued)
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form" - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana)
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ajaysimha
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Re: Archive of Music Articles - Dr. R. Sathyanarayana
*Karnataka Music as Aesthetic Form*
*Rāga*
(continues)
Performance of _rāga_ is called _ālapti._ If set to words it is called _rūpakālapti_ ; if performed only with _svara,_ it is _rāgālapti,_ _Ālāpa_ means manifestation of _rāgabhāva, ālapti_ means its concealment and _ālāpana_ means combining _ālapti_ and _ālāpa_ by alternation. _Ālapti_ stresses the content of _rāga_: it is a flow consisting of the four _varnas_ ( _sthāyi_ etc. such that it has variegated beauty). On the other hand, _ālāpa_ stresses on the physical parameters such as the notes of commencement ( _graha_), final rest ( _nyāsa_), medial pause ( _apanyāsa_), submedial pause ( _samnyāsa_), range in the upper register ( _tāra_), range in the lower register ( _mandra_), conditions of convertibility into _ṣāḍava_ and _auḍava_ etc., in terms of which the personality of the _rāga_ is manifested. The most important and frequent note which brings out the character of the _rāga_ is _amsa._ It pervades the entire _rāga,_ determines range of melodic kinetics in the three registers and is repeatedly used along with _graha, nyāsa_ etc. notes. These ten vital characteristics of _rāga_ constitute the psychoacoustic bases for aesthesis. _Ālāpa_ and _ālapti_ are mutually complementary : male and female, content and form, function and structure. _Ālāpana_ brings about their synthesis into a single entity viz. the _rāga._ _Graha, amśa, nyāsa_ and the other _prāṇas_ of the _rāga_ are nodes or nucleal centres for the locus of the moving _svara_ in the topographical anatomy of the _rāga._ In _rāgālapti_ melodic movement is carried out in vowels, nonsensic syllables or syllables of names (e.g. Hari). The flow is not restricted or measured by _tāla_ rhythm. Its appeal lies within itself and is not augmentative or secondary to discursive meaning. In _rūpakālapti,_ however, _ālapti_ is performed within a song while the latter is in progress and is carried out in the same _rāga_ and _tāla._ In wordless _ālāpana_ or in song, the _rāga_ establishes itself through general phrases ( _sāmānyasañcāra_), characterising, special phrases ( _viseșa-sancāra_) and rare or exceptional phrases ( _apūrva-sañcāra_). If the word meaning and message are more important ( _mātupradhāna_) as in _sankirtana, sūlādi, ugābhoga, śloka,_ the music subserves the word meaning or message (which is extra-aesthetic such as religious and sociological) and is designed to be simple. Compositions like _svarajāti, varṇa, kṛti, jāvali, pada, aṣṭapadi, daru_ are intended to give equal importance to both words and music. _Tillāna, pallavi_ etc. are _dhātu pradhāna._
The foregoing and other musical forms reveal the composer's creative abilities and the interpretative skills of the performer. Karnataka music offers ample opportunities to the performer to excel in his own creative, ex tempore musical activities in such forms namely, _rāgālāpana, kalpanāsvara, neraval, tānam, pallavi_ and the _tani āvartanam_ (solo performance) of the percussionist.
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form" - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr R. Sathyanarayana)
*Rāga*
(continues)
Performance of _rāga_ is called _ālapti._ If set to words it is called _rūpakālapti_ ; if performed only with _svara,_ it is _rāgālapti,_ _Ālāpa_ means manifestation of _rāgabhāva, ālapti_ means its concealment and _ālāpana_ means combining _ālapti_ and _ālāpa_ by alternation. _Ālapti_ stresses the content of _rāga_: it is a flow consisting of the four _varnas_ ( _sthāyi_ etc. such that it has variegated beauty). On the other hand, _ālāpa_ stresses on the physical parameters such as the notes of commencement ( _graha_), final rest ( _nyāsa_), medial pause ( _apanyāsa_), submedial pause ( _samnyāsa_), range in the upper register ( _tāra_), range in the lower register ( _mandra_), conditions of convertibility into _ṣāḍava_ and _auḍava_ etc., in terms of which the personality of the _rāga_ is manifested. The most important and frequent note which brings out the character of the _rāga_ is _amsa._ It pervades the entire _rāga,_ determines range of melodic kinetics in the three registers and is repeatedly used along with _graha, nyāsa_ etc. notes. These ten vital characteristics of _rāga_ constitute the psychoacoustic bases for aesthesis. _Ālāpa_ and _ālapti_ are mutually complementary : male and female, content and form, function and structure. _Ālāpana_ brings about their synthesis into a single entity viz. the _rāga._ _Graha, amśa, nyāsa_ and the other _prāṇas_ of the _rāga_ are nodes or nucleal centres for the locus of the moving _svara_ in the topographical anatomy of the _rāga._ In _rāgālapti_ melodic movement is carried out in vowels, nonsensic syllables or syllables of names (e.g. Hari). The flow is not restricted or measured by _tāla_ rhythm. Its appeal lies within itself and is not augmentative or secondary to discursive meaning. In _rūpakālapti,_ however, _ālapti_ is performed within a song while the latter is in progress and is carried out in the same _rāga_ and _tāla._ In wordless _ālāpana_ or in song, the _rāga_ establishes itself through general phrases ( _sāmānyasañcāra_), characterising, special phrases ( _viseșa-sancāra_) and rare or exceptional phrases ( _apūrva-sañcāra_). If the word meaning and message are more important ( _mātupradhāna_) as in _sankirtana, sūlādi, ugābhoga, śloka,_ the music subserves the word meaning or message (which is extra-aesthetic such as religious and sociological) and is designed to be simple. Compositions like _svarajāti, varṇa, kṛti, jāvali, pada, aṣṭapadi, daru_ are intended to give equal importance to both words and music. _Tillāna, pallavi_ etc. are _dhātu pradhāna._
The foregoing and other musical forms reveal the composer's creative abilities and the interpretative skills of the performer. Karnataka music offers ample opportunities to the performer to excel in his own creative, ex tempore musical activities in such forms namely, _rāgālāpana, kalpanāsvara, neraval, tānam, pallavi_ and the _tani āvartanam_ (solo performance) of the percussionist.
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form" - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr R. Sathyanarayana)
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ajaysimha
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Re: Archive of Music Articles - Dr. R. Sathyanarayana
*Aesthetic Materials of Indian Music*
*Tāla*
Tāla is the element of beauty which organises rhythm in Indian music. It is a device to measure events in music and dance in time in terms of successivity and simultaneity, and thus confers structural and aesthetic unities on melody or dancing. Even though time is eternal, tāla is an artifice which divides time into finite, fixed and equal segments. Each segment is a temporal cycle which is repeated continuously to form a spire. Such spiral movement makes it possible for an event to be exactly located in its continuous, successive progression on a horizontal axis and in its periodicity and simultaneity on a vertical axis. Each segment or cycle is called an _'āvarta'_ (recurrence) of _tāla_ and is uniquely defined with a small number of accents located at constant points. This bestows a fixed and unique structural pattern. Such subdivisions are called limbs ( _angas_) of the _tāla_. Every _tāla_ differs from every other in its formulation. _Anga_ provides a unique, constant, recurring rhythmic pattern in time against which background the musical or dance event is set off. The _anga_ is executed with sounded ( _sasabda_) or silent ( _niḥśabda_) beats ( _kriyā_). The entire _āvarta_ is divided into unitary equal intervals, the duration of which ( _kāla_) defines the tempo ( _laya_). This is conveniently classified into three viz. the slow, middle and fast. The middle tempo defines the slow (half) and fast (double). Speed of performance _kāla_ is reckoned on multiples of two relative to the initial speed. Patterning the _kāla_ duration into groups of three, four, five, seven or nine equally spaced subdivisions is _gati._ Mere grouping sounds or movements into the same kind of patterns without reference to _kāla_ is _jāti._ As mentioned above, the duration of the _tāla_ cycle is determined by the _anga_ occurring in it. These are of three kinds viz. _anudruta_ (one unit of time) _druta_ (two units of time) and _laghu_ (number of units may be three, four, five, seven and nine). Number of time units determines the size of the _laghu_ and is called _jāti._ _Mārga_ refers to different speeds with which a given duration may be traversed. _Prastāra_ is a scheme of systematic of tabulation of all possible permutations of the set of _angas_ in a _tāla._ _Graha_ is the point in the _tāla_ cycle at which a musical or dance event is commenced. If this point coincides with the beginning of the cycle, it is _sama;_ if it is before the commencement, it is _atīta,_ if after the commencement, it is _anāgata._ _Kalā_ is a device of expanding or contracting the span of the _tāla_ cycle by multiplying or dividing the standard time unit of the _tāla_ cycle by a factor of two respectively. Thus _tāla_ is encyclopaedic in the temporal content of song or dance and organises the entirety of rhythm movement of both.
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form" - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana)
*Tāla*
Tāla is the element of beauty which organises rhythm in Indian music. It is a device to measure events in music and dance in time in terms of successivity and simultaneity, and thus confers structural and aesthetic unities on melody or dancing. Even though time is eternal, tāla is an artifice which divides time into finite, fixed and equal segments. Each segment is a temporal cycle which is repeated continuously to form a spire. Such spiral movement makes it possible for an event to be exactly located in its continuous, successive progression on a horizontal axis and in its periodicity and simultaneity on a vertical axis. Each segment or cycle is called an _'āvarta'_ (recurrence) of _tāla_ and is uniquely defined with a small number of accents located at constant points. This bestows a fixed and unique structural pattern. Such subdivisions are called limbs ( _angas_) of the _tāla_. Every _tāla_ differs from every other in its formulation. _Anga_ provides a unique, constant, recurring rhythmic pattern in time against which background the musical or dance event is set off. The _anga_ is executed with sounded ( _sasabda_) or silent ( _niḥśabda_) beats ( _kriyā_). The entire _āvarta_ is divided into unitary equal intervals, the duration of which ( _kāla_) defines the tempo ( _laya_). This is conveniently classified into three viz. the slow, middle and fast. The middle tempo defines the slow (half) and fast (double). Speed of performance _kāla_ is reckoned on multiples of two relative to the initial speed. Patterning the _kāla_ duration into groups of three, four, five, seven or nine equally spaced subdivisions is _gati._ Mere grouping sounds or movements into the same kind of patterns without reference to _kāla_ is _jāti._ As mentioned above, the duration of the _tāla_ cycle is determined by the _anga_ occurring in it. These are of three kinds viz. _anudruta_ (one unit of time) _druta_ (two units of time) and _laghu_ (number of units may be three, four, five, seven and nine). Number of time units determines the size of the _laghu_ and is called _jāti._ _Mārga_ refers to different speeds with which a given duration may be traversed. _Prastāra_ is a scheme of systematic of tabulation of all possible permutations of the set of _angas_ in a _tāla._ _Graha_ is the point in the _tāla_ cycle at which a musical or dance event is commenced. If this point coincides with the beginning of the cycle, it is _sama;_ if it is before the commencement, it is _atīta,_ if after the commencement, it is _anāgata._ _Kalā_ is a device of expanding or contracting the span of the _tāla_ cycle by multiplying or dividing the standard time unit of the _tāla_ cycle by a factor of two respectively. Thus _tāla_ is encyclopaedic in the temporal content of song or dance and organises the entirety of rhythm movement of both.
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form" - by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana)
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ajaysimha
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Re: Archive of Music Articles - Dr. R. Sathyanarayana
*Aesthetic Materials of Indian Music*
*Orchestra*
A sensuous element of beauty in music is tone quality or timbre. This distinguishes and characterises not only each of four media of the musical sound (string, air including voice, membrane and solid) but also each member of each class form every other member. For example, the singing voice of every vocalist is peculiar to himself or herself and distinct from all other voices. (This is so unique that voiceprint is used, like thumb-print for unique, absolute personal identification). An important component of musical experience is texture which consists of density and variety of tone colour, and is the gateway to sensuous pleasure in music.
Musical expression may be individual or collective. Indian music is largely inclined to the latter, though instrumental ensembles are not unknown. Ancient Indian music was based on three basic scales (grāma), modal shift of tonic (mūrchanā) and multitonicity (sadja, gandhāra and madhyama). Thus, though preponderantly homophonic, it included heterophonic potentialities such as these. Bharatamuni describes in the Nāṭyaśāstram instrumental ensembles called _kutapa_ for chordophones and membranophones for performance of theatre music during a play. Of course, such ensembles were presented in temples for worship and in royal courts for entertainment and ceremony. Recent examples of the latter are those of the Bhonsle rulers (especially Serfoji II) at Tanjore in the nineteenth century A.D. and of the Wadiyars of Mysore, especially of Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV, for each of Karnataka music, Hindustani music and western music. It is on record that the latter king erected a statue of Beethoven in Bangalore and his Western Music Band performed his Ninth Symphony on the occasion of the centenary birth celebrations of the composer. The All India Radio has done magnificent work in instrumental ensembles, called _vadyamela_ under the leadership of eminent musicians such as Ravi Shankar, Pannalal Ghosh, Vijayaraghava Rao, Emani Shankara Sastri and others. This is true of experiment and exploitation carried out in the field of film music by brilliant music composers such as Naushad.
However, it is wrong to call the foregoing efforts as orchestra or orchestration. An orchestra is defined in western music (where it properly belongs) as a composite and corporate instrument consisting of certain bowed-string, plucked string, wood-wind, brass-wind and percussion instruments ; there is however, a strong convention about their use viz. the string instruments are always played collectively while each wind and percussion instrument is played alone. Similarly, orchestration, also designated as instrumentation is defined as the art of combining the sounds of a large complex of instruments to form a satisfactory blend and balance of tone. The most important contribution of orchestra lies in the field of counterpoint and harmony, wherein the choice of an instrument and its colour, brilliance, loudness, pace and the overall texture play a significant part. In a restricted sense, the term orchestra is applied to the study and investigation of such matters as range and transposition of the various musical instruments, their quality, relative facility of execution and adaptability. Similarly, orchestration connotes process of combining different instruments in a musical score in order to bring out a desired effect.
Systematic instrumentation is heavily indebted to many auxiliary disciplines such as acoustics, psychophysiology and aesthetics. Knowledge of acoustics is essential for the construction of musical instruments, their mechanical and acoustical properties, problems of intonation and dynamic resources. Such knowledge is indispensable for working out details such as tone balance, tone colour, potential mechanical limits in speed of execution as well as control of pitch, loudness and quality. Similarly, one may learn from psychophysiology much theory of orchestration such as tone production and control, perception of tonal values such as pitch, loudness and quality. The science of aesthetics plays a major part in formulating principles of orchestration, of style and of design in composition.
Notwithstanding the almost endless help which orchestration may derive from these and other sciences, it is a sad fact that it has remained mostly empirical in the West despite efforts such as those of Rimsky Korakov. And not even a beginning is made, nor an awareness of need displayed to explore possibilities and potentialities of orchestration in Indian music. Some facts of Indian music (especially Karnataka music) which argue against its orchestration are that (i) it is inviolably anchored to the reference note; (ii) its tone values and scales are relative and not absolute; (iii) _gamaka_ (tone embellishment) is not merely ornamental but is very life force of the system and (iv) its tonal range is normally limited to three registers. If these and similar reasons tend to thwart enthusiasm and experimentation in orchestration, some beginnings, at least, could be made to improve the acoustical, aesthetic and psychophysical aspects of concert designs and to explore instrumental ensembles with experiment, exploration and exploitation. It is always possible to differently define orchestration in Indian music and create thus a new dimension of musical experience and sensual pleasure from its materials.
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form" by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana)
*Orchestra*
A sensuous element of beauty in music is tone quality or timbre. This distinguishes and characterises not only each of four media of the musical sound (string, air including voice, membrane and solid) but also each member of each class form every other member. For example, the singing voice of every vocalist is peculiar to himself or herself and distinct from all other voices. (This is so unique that voiceprint is used, like thumb-print for unique, absolute personal identification). An important component of musical experience is texture which consists of density and variety of tone colour, and is the gateway to sensuous pleasure in music.
Musical expression may be individual or collective. Indian music is largely inclined to the latter, though instrumental ensembles are not unknown. Ancient Indian music was based on three basic scales (grāma), modal shift of tonic (mūrchanā) and multitonicity (sadja, gandhāra and madhyama). Thus, though preponderantly homophonic, it included heterophonic potentialities such as these. Bharatamuni describes in the Nāṭyaśāstram instrumental ensembles called _kutapa_ for chordophones and membranophones for performance of theatre music during a play. Of course, such ensembles were presented in temples for worship and in royal courts for entertainment and ceremony. Recent examples of the latter are those of the Bhonsle rulers (especially Serfoji II) at Tanjore in the nineteenth century A.D. and of the Wadiyars of Mysore, especially of Krishnaraja Wadiyar IV, for each of Karnataka music, Hindustani music and western music. It is on record that the latter king erected a statue of Beethoven in Bangalore and his Western Music Band performed his Ninth Symphony on the occasion of the centenary birth celebrations of the composer. The All India Radio has done magnificent work in instrumental ensembles, called _vadyamela_ under the leadership of eminent musicians such as Ravi Shankar, Pannalal Ghosh, Vijayaraghava Rao, Emani Shankara Sastri and others. This is true of experiment and exploitation carried out in the field of film music by brilliant music composers such as Naushad.
However, it is wrong to call the foregoing efforts as orchestra or orchestration. An orchestra is defined in western music (where it properly belongs) as a composite and corporate instrument consisting of certain bowed-string, plucked string, wood-wind, brass-wind and percussion instruments ; there is however, a strong convention about their use viz. the string instruments are always played collectively while each wind and percussion instrument is played alone. Similarly, orchestration, also designated as instrumentation is defined as the art of combining the sounds of a large complex of instruments to form a satisfactory blend and balance of tone. The most important contribution of orchestra lies in the field of counterpoint and harmony, wherein the choice of an instrument and its colour, brilliance, loudness, pace and the overall texture play a significant part. In a restricted sense, the term orchestra is applied to the study and investigation of such matters as range and transposition of the various musical instruments, their quality, relative facility of execution and adaptability. Similarly, orchestration connotes process of combining different instruments in a musical score in order to bring out a desired effect.
Systematic instrumentation is heavily indebted to many auxiliary disciplines such as acoustics, psychophysiology and aesthetics. Knowledge of acoustics is essential for the construction of musical instruments, their mechanical and acoustical properties, problems of intonation and dynamic resources. Such knowledge is indispensable for working out details such as tone balance, tone colour, potential mechanical limits in speed of execution as well as control of pitch, loudness and quality. Similarly, one may learn from psychophysiology much theory of orchestration such as tone production and control, perception of tonal values such as pitch, loudness and quality. The science of aesthetics plays a major part in formulating principles of orchestration, of style and of design in composition.
Notwithstanding the almost endless help which orchestration may derive from these and other sciences, it is a sad fact that it has remained mostly empirical in the West despite efforts such as those of Rimsky Korakov. And not even a beginning is made, nor an awareness of need displayed to explore possibilities and potentialities of orchestration in Indian music. Some facts of Indian music (especially Karnataka music) which argue against its orchestration are that (i) it is inviolably anchored to the reference note; (ii) its tone values and scales are relative and not absolute; (iii) _gamaka_ (tone embellishment) is not merely ornamental but is very life force of the system and (iv) its tonal range is normally limited to three registers. If these and similar reasons tend to thwart enthusiasm and experimentation in orchestration, some beginnings, at least, could be made to improve the acoustical, aesthetic and psychophysical aspects of concert designs and to explore instrumental ensembles with experiment, exploration and exploitation. It is always possible to differently define orchestration in Indian music and create thus a new dimension of musical experience and sensual pleasure from its materials.
(From the book "Karnataka Music As Aesthetic Form" by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana)
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ajaysimha
- Posts: 832
- Joined: 19 Apr 2018, 18:16
Re: Archive of Music Articles - Dr. R. Sathyanarayana
*Svarajati*
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As the name suggests, svarajati is composed of svaras constituting jatis in a rāga-tāla frame. Jati is a rhythmic phrase with a specific structure. Therefore, svarajati is built of phrases consisting of svaras of different duration, distribution and order set to a single rāga and single tāla. It is performed in middle tempo. It consists of three segments, pallavi, anupallavi and caraṇa and is sometimes composed with words. But anupallavi is always without words. The final segment has insertions of percussive syllables mixed with svaras ending with the jati tadhinginatom. The pallavi is repeated after the anupallavi and after the caraṇa. If the song has words, the first tālāvarta is always sung with svaras only, then the whole stanza unit is sung with words, if any. This method is followed in all caraṇas. After this, each caraṇa is fully sung to svaras only and then with words. All the stanzas are together known as caraṇa. However, this has now given way to the present-day practice of repeating the pallavi after each stanza. The word theme is usually in śrngara rasa. Two other (less common) types of svarajati may be mentioned : first of these has words praising God. It has intertwining phrases of svaras and percussive syllables, ending in the latter in each segment. It also contains words set to music. In the second, innovated by Syamāśāstri, every segment of the svarajati commences with a note of the scale of the rāga or its characterising note (jivasvara) to which the song is set in the ascending order. One or two melodic segments are composed with such initial note as nucleus.
*Jatisvara*
Jatisvara is quite similar to the svarajati: it is performed in a. single rāga and single tala, and is structured with pallavi, anupallavi and caraṇa. Caraṇa has two or more stanzas, if it is set in middle tempo and generally in caturaśra gati (4-4 movement). It has no words. The commencing note of the third stanza is normally the characterizing note (jivasvara) of the raga. The rhythm structure of the jati and the durations of the constituent percussive syllables correspond exactly to the svara phrase. Therefore, the jatisvara is sometimes called svara pallavi. Use of anupallavi is optional. Jatisvara is a composition for pure dancing (nṛtta). Every segment in it is repeated several times, reorganising the jati structures so that rich variety of shapes, configurations and kinesis becomes possible in expressing pure dance forms. Indeed, such variation and reorganisation are a measure of the ability and quality of the composer, teacher and performer. Thus, while svarajati is performed to express forms of pure melody, jatisvara is performed to bring out forms of pure dance. Both demand imaginativeness in harnessing the selfsame art material, viz. rhythmic structuring of form.
(From the book - 'Karnataka Music as Aesthetic Form' — by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana)
-----------
As the name suggests, svarajati is composed of svaras constituting jatis in a rāga-tāla frame. Jati is a rhythmic phrase with a specific structure. Therefore, svarajati is built of phrases consisting of svaras of different duration, distribution and order set to a single rāga and single tāla. It is performed in middle tempo. It consists of three segments, pallavi, anupallavi and caraṇa and is sometimes composed with words. But anupallavi is always without words. The final segment has insertions of percussive syllables mixed with svaras ending with the jati tadhinginatom. The pallavi is repeated after the anupallavi and after the caraṇa. If the song has words, the first tālāvarta is always sung with svaras only, then the whole stanza unit is sung with words, if any. This method is followed in all caraṇas. After this, each caraṇa is fully sung to svaras only and then with words. All the stanzas are together known as caraṇa. However, this has now given way to the present-day practice of repeating the pallavi after each stanza. The word theme is usually in śrngara rasa. Two other (less common) types of svarajati may be mentioned : first of these has words praising God. It has intertwining phrases of svaras and percussive syllables, ending in the latter in each segment. It also contains words set to music. In the second, innovated by Syamāśāstri, every segment of the svarajati commences with a note of the scale of the rāga or its characterising note (jivasvara) to which the song is set in the ascending order. One or two melodic segments are composed with such initial note as nucleus.
*Jatisvara*
Jatisvara is quite similar to the svarajati: it is performed in a. single rāga and single tala, and is structured with pallavi, anupallavi and caraṇa. Caraṇa has two or more stanzas, if it is set in middle tempo and generally in caturaśra gati (4-4 movement). It has no words. The commencing note of the third stanza is normally the characterizing note (jivasvara) of the raga. The rhythm structure of the jati and the durations of the constituent percussive syllables correspond exactly to the svara phrase. Therefore, the jatisvara is sometimes called svara pallavi. Use of anupallavi is optional. Jatisvara is a composition for pure dancing (nṛtta). Every segment in it is repeated several times, reorganising the jati structures so that rich variety of shapes, configurations and kinesis becomes possible in expressing pure dance forms. Indeed, such variation and reorganisation are a measure of the ability and quality of the composer, teacher and performer. Thus, while svarajati is performed to express forms of pure melody, jatisvara is performed to bring out forms of pure dance. Both demand imaginativeness in harnessing the selfsame art material, viz. rhythmic structuring of form.
(From the book - 'Karnataka Music as Aesthetic Form' — by Padmasri, Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana)